Phallic Worship in the World

Phallic Worship in the world

    No matter which part of the world we go to, we will find the natives nurturing certain beliefs and superstitions. One such astonishing belief is phallic worship. Phallic worship is the worship of reproductive powers of nature as indicated by the male reproductive organ. It seems curious that in several religions of the world, from the past thousand years, phallic symbols and sexual rituals have played an important role.

Many archaeologists have found phallic symbols all over the world, and they are mostly interpreted as an expression of human desire for reproduction. Phallic worship was carried on countries like Greece, India, Bhutan, Egypt, Rome, etc. Sexual symbols were adorned as the most sacred objects.

In Rome, the most vital form of phallic worship was that of the cult of Cybele (mother goddess of Rome) and Attis (lover of Cybele) which was quite prominent during the reign. This cult was known for its festive excesses where participants wounded themselves with daggers, self-inflicted castration (removal of testicles), a prerequisite for admission into the priest caste of this phallic sect, took place in this festival. They also wore phallic jewellery as talismans to get rid of the evil. During spring, they carried the phallus across the fields, to insure fertility.

When Tshongpa Sonam of Bhutan purchased his first truck, he pasted pictures of elaborately drawn phalluses on the number plate of the truck. Farmer Dorji Gyeltshen carved a wooden phallus when his cow gave birth to a calf. In eastern Bhutan, farmers hang a wooden phallus in the field when crops begin to sprout. During Tshesu (a festival in Bhutan), the Atsaras clown figures who entertain the crowds at Tshechu) wear a phallus made of cloth as a part of their head gear.

Inauguration of a new house is also a sort of phallic ritual whereby the owner declares the house. It is an elaborated ritual where four phalluses are placed on four lower edges of the roof facing in four directions and one inside the house. The five phalluses are then tied together and kept in a bamboo basket. Then a young and virgin girl leads a dancing and singing troupes carries the basket taking rounds of the house thrice. Later, groups of men and women are formed where women stand under the edges of the roof facing east whereas the men climb the roof. The basket is then tied in the middle of the rope and tug of war begins. The women pretend to pull it to the ground while the men pull it roof-ward. The common understanding here is that the basket will have to reach the end of the roof so that the phalluses can be hung on the edges. As the ritual is carried on, phallic songs are sung. Meanwhile the men pretend to lose the battle and the basket are pulled by the women. The owner of the house then serves is home-brewed spirit, to the men as they pretend to be tired. The spirit is supposed to energize the men and the pulling is resumed. When the phalluses reach the roof, they are placed on the edges. The phalluses also have a dagger tied to them which are painted in five different colours.

The above rituals show how phallus is an integral part of ceremonies and festivals observed by communities in Bhutan to ward off evil spirits and negativity.

The Egyptians related the cult of phallus with Osiris (Egyptian god).When Osiris died ,his body was cut in fourteen pieces and Seth (god of deserts) scattered them all over Egypt and Osiris’ wife gathered them all, except one, his penis which was swallowed by a fish. It was believed that Isis later made a wooden replacement. The phallus was a symbol of fertility and Min (god of fertility) is often depicted with an erect penis.

The phallus of the bull Apis was carried in procession during the festivals of Osiris by women. A great number of phallic jewellery has been found in Egyptian tombs.

In Greek mythology, Hermes, the messenger God is considered to be a phallic deity in association with depictions of him on pillars featuring a phallus.  Pan, son of Hermes was also depicted having an exaggerated phallus.

Priapus is the Greek God of fertility and is often depicted with an exaggerated penis. He is the son of Aphrodite and protector of livestock, gardens and male gentiles. The term priapism (a harmful and painful medical condition in which the erect penis does not return to its flaccid state) is originated from his name.

 Japan holds a grand event every year called the Shinto Penis Festival where participants pray to sexuality gods for protection against sexually transmitted diseases, family prosperity, easy delivery, harmony between married couples and marriages. These rituals can be dated back to a time when Buddhism did not exist in Japan.

    The phallus is the central theme of the events with images of phalluses in carved vegetables, candies and decorations. Half the people participating here are tourists who raise money for HIV research.  Fertility symbolism and phallic worship are common in Japan. There are a lot of shrines across the country.

    India, beyond all other countries is the home of phallic worship: Ling Puja. This adoration is considered to be one of the leading teachings of the Hindu religion. There are very few temples throughout the country which does not have its Lingam. The Linga may be described as a smooth, round, black stone rising out of another stone, formed like an elongated saucer. The outline of this saucer is called a Yoni or Argha and the upright stone (type of virile organ) is called the Linga. The whole thing bears the name of Lingioni. This depiction of union of sexes serves as a typical example of the sacred or active energy in union, the reproductive power seen throughout nature; the Earth being the yoni which is fertilized by the solar heat, the sun- the Lingam to whose rays all living things of the Earth owe their  continued existence. Thus, according to Hindus, Linga is God and God is Linga, the creator or generator. Lingas often have a Nandi bull carved either at the end of the Yoni or at the side of the emblem. The Hindus believe that the bull can intercept the evil which is emitted from the female sancti. Early in the morning around these emblems may be seen the girls who are anxious for husbands, sprinkling them with water from the Ganga, covering them with garlands of flowers, performing mudras or gestures with fingers while rubbing themselves against the emblem, reciting incantations and requesting the deity to make them fruitful mothers of children. This is called the Linga Puja. During the Puja, five lamps are lit and a bell is continuously rung to keep evil forces away. Lingam worship is positively known to have existed for more than 1500 years and it is estimated that about two third of all the Hindus practice it.

      St.Foutin (first bishop of Lyon) was usually represented with a large wooden penis. A shaving from this was made into a tea and was believed to cure barren ladies and have aphrodisiac effects on their husbands. Women would also kiss or sit on such objects. It was also speculated that in some ancient customs, new brides would give their maidenhood to the saint.

At Varailles in Provence (south-eastern region of France), the ceiling of the chapel dedicated to St.Foutin was covered with wax copies of both female and male gentiles. An eyewitness related that when the wind blew they caused a disturbing effect.

Maypole dances were also relics of phallic worship. In a Swedish custom that still exists, a long wooden pole is penetrated through the windows of rooms of newlywed couples to show a sympathetic influence of happenings in the room.

     Phallic worship, perhaps, still exists in a lot of other countries of the world. It seems to be one of the very bizarre rituals followed by people of various sects.

Rachaita Vyas

Sherlock

The award winning ‘Sherlock’ is a crime drama television series, conceived by Steven Moffat and Mark Gatiss, both writers for the mega hit Doctor Who series. The series depicts Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes in a modern day version of his detective stories. The series broadcast-ed in 2010 and since then has received positive reviews around the world. The series revolves around Sherlock Holmes a ‘consulting detective’ helping the metropolitan police solve various crimes. In Arthur Conan Doyle’s books, Sherlock Holmes is always making experiments in his lab by his own, he uses any tool or object possible, this series is just a modern version of this. Sherlock uses the tools and gadgets available in today’s modern world to solve his cases. The conventional rudiments of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes has been maintained throughout the series, the only difference being, it has all been transferred to today’s contemporary London, everything else remains the same, Sherlock’s home on Baker Street, his greatest anarchy Professor James Moriarty, and all the classic elements, but just modernized  For example, in Sherlock, Sherlock Holmes’ flat mate Dr. Watson was wounded and had returned from a recent conflict in Afghanistan, whereas originally in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes, he was disowned by his family after serving in the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880). Mark Gatiss said “It is the same war now, I thought. The same unwinnable war."  And so keeping all the original elements in mind, they have been able to turn Sherlock Holmes into a modern day detective in contemporary London making the series a must-watch for everyone. I have always been a fan of Sir Arthur's books and i never thought anything but the original would be as interesting as this, this series is unmatchable. 

Dhwani Shah

Is globalisation a threat or an opportunity to developing countries?

Globalisation as an opportunity

Economic development

Globalisation can be said to be economically benign; playing the significant role of enhancing economic prosperity and offering a new beacon of hope to developing countries. Globalization is often characterised by a reduction in trade barriers such that there is a free flow of goods, services and labour from one country to another contends with these views and adds that that the effect of this is increased trade which in turn translates into increased income for developing countries. Globalisation therefore serves as an opportunity for developing countries to stabilise their economies by taking advantage of trade. These statements can be considered true because globalisation has greatly reduced barriers between countries through elimination of tariffs and import duties.

The rise in globalisation has led to increased capital flow into developing countries’ economies. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) injects a considerable amount of capital into developing countries thus easing their efforts towards economic stability. The developing countries have also benefited in terms of increased financing through loans and grants from developed countries. It is true that increase in capital inflow serves the purpose of enhancing economic development in a country. What proponents fail to incorporate in their studies however is that net capital inflow could lead to negative effects on trade.

The reduction in trade barriers has led to the promotion of specialisation. This is an economic concept which denotes that countries can concentrate on the production of commodities that they can produce at the least cost (Aurifeille, 2006, p. 252). This commodity can then be traded to earn maximum income for the country while other goods may be imported from other countries. In this regard developing countries should take advantage of globalisation to enhance their income through trading in goods which they can produce most effectively. Such a development not only gives developing countries an opportunity to prosper economically but also to obtain goods that prove expensive to produce in their own countries. Most studies on globalisation contend that globalisation enhances competition as the flow of goods and services between countries becomes easier. According to Corsi (2009, p. 9), competition is an effective way of enhancing innovation and the production of better quality goods.

Technological advancement and knowledge transfer

The transfer of technological know-how has taken an integral part in globalisation. Corsi (2000, p. 9) points out that this has led to increased innovation and better methods of production to developing countries. The direct result of this is increased income and thus appreciation of the countries’ economic development. At the same time, globalisation has led to increased transfer of knowledge and skills to developing countries (OECD, 2000, p. 61). Foreign nationals coming to work in multinational companies add to the knowledge banks of developing countries thus increasing the level of efficiency. Increased knowledge about production methods, economic policies and management techniques present invaluable inputs in developing countries. At this juncture, it would be worthwhile to note that developing countries should use this as an advantage to tap these knowledge and skills because foreign investors are not destined to stay there forever. Training of professionals and development of technology within the country are vital yet they are not effectively addressed in the globalisation literature presented by these authors.

Employment and social welfare

Developing countries have an opportunity to increase their per-capita income following the increase in globalisation. The increase in Foreign Direct Investment following the reduction in foreign investment laws has played a great role in reducing unemployment in developing countries (Welfens, 1999, p. 158). Increased employment levels raise the social welfare of the citizens of developing countries as a result of increased disposable income so that they can comfortably take care of their needs. In consideration to this proposition, increased personal income would be worthwhile for developing countries’ citizens. It is however notable that education in developing countries is not well established. As a result, many multinational companies have to bring in foreign expatriates to take up management positions while local citizens mostly take up positions requiring lower skills. This is barely addressed by Welfens. If developing countries have to benefit from globalisation through increased employment, increased training and education must be provided to the country’s citizens.

Globalization as a threat

Increased inequality

Critics of globalisation propose that globalisation does not negate the needs of developing countries. According to Zedillo (2007, p. 11), globalisation only serves the interests of countries in the developed world such as United States, Europe, Australia and Canada among others. Developing countries are normally left out of major decisions on globalisation even in cases where they are directly involved. According to IMF (2000, p. 6), globalisation serves to amplify the level of inequality between nations. As far as opponents are concerned, developed countries have a larger stake in influencing the world economy to an extent that they influence the economic and social policies in developing countries. Multi-national Corporations have not made the situation any better in developing countries. According to Robert and Lajtha (2002, p. 186), multinational companies take advantage of the cheap labour that can be obtained from developing countries’ citizens. These companies normally provide poor working conditions and do little to upgrade the knowledge of their workers. Consequently, the workers are not in a position to improve their social welfare. It is true that inequality has been on the rise due to globalisation. Studies conducted by the World Economic Outlook indicate that while the average per capita income rose considerably in the 20th century, the income gap between the developed and developed countries had become wider (IMF, 2000, p. 6). Income distribution was more unequal at the end of the century than at the beginning.

Increased control by developed countries

With increase in globalisation, the level of control over developing countries over developing countries has increased. This not only threatens political systems but the social aspects as well. Political leaders in developing countries are under the control of developed countries and the policies taken in developing countries mostly result from pressure by developed countries (Richardson, 2002 p. 2). Zedillo (2007, p. 11) notes that these policies are mostly meant to address particular developing countries’ interests. Developing countries often have to submit because failure to do so could lead to deleterious effects including the withdrawal of financial assistance, FDI and possible trade restrictions through trade embargos. It is notable that even when developing countries receive financial aid from developing countries and international financial organisations, they are not at liberty to spend the finances in the projects that they desire to develop. The projects to be undertaken using the funds are often dictated by the donor countries; most often to promote their own self interests. While the concept of dominance is true, it is a perfect example of the struggle for dominance that characterises societies. According to Joseph (2003, p. 131-133), societies strive to outdo one another politically, socially and politically through development of methodologies to dominate others even if it means using acts that may be considered unethical. To a certain extent therefore, the actions of developing countries cannot entirely be blamed on globalisation.

Threat to the workforce

The ease with which individuals can move from one country to another has been a threat to the level of professional skill and expertise for developing countries. Highly qualified professionals are now moving to developed countries where they are assured of better pay incentives (IMF, 2000, p. 4). The direct result of this is that the developing countries are now experiencing shortage of qualified staff to run local institutions. This is a great threat to the developing countries’ workforce which is bound to decrease as more learned and experienced workers migrate to developed countries. IMF fails to mention the decision to go for higher incentives in foreign countries is a question of rational choice. It is only normal for employees to seek greener pastures and attractive packages in international firms provide them with these.

Increased dependence on developed countries

Reduced trade barriers have led to increased supply of cheap products from developed countries to developing ones. Developed countries are in a position to produce cheaper products due to the availability of advanced technology, capital and economies of scale (Robert and Lajtha, 2002, p. 183). Cheaper goods often lead to unfair competition to companies producing similar goods in developing countries thus putting them out of business. The result of this is that countries now have to depend on imports to furnish their demand for such goods. This increases dependency on developed countries. As far as unfair competition is concerned, this should in fact be a wake up call to developing countries and not a reason to allow the closure of industries. As noted by Whiteford and Wright-St Clair (2004, p. 353), companies should rationalise production so as to ensure that they are as efficient as possible to compete with others in the market. This shows that increased competition could indeed play to the advantage of countries if proper measures are taken to address the country’s shortcomings.

Effect on the socials structure

As far as conservatives are concerned, globalization has been the cause of culture erosion, increase in the level of crime, immorality among other evils. According to Whiteford and Wright-St Clair, 2004, p. 350), the concept of culture erosion has led to wide criticism of globalisation. There is a considerable erosion of cultural identities and boundaries between nations. This is what has been referred to as a borderless world such that leads to the loss of identity as people start behaving in similar ways across the globe. The critics of globalisation under this claim have not taken time to look at the positive side of cultural interaction. Not only does it promote communication across nations thus enhancing interdependency but also eliminates undesirable behaviour such as racial and ethnic segregation hence increasing international cohesiveness. When people interact socially, political and economically, their differences are less visible such that they can effectively work together.

Rachaita Vyas