Mahabharata
is the longest epic and it reflects greatly on the society that existed then. “Epic literature
emerges out of ‘heroic ages’ and often retains the flavor of such an age in
spite of repeated redactions of the text and the interpolation of late ages.
This lends to the text elements of internal contradictions as well as
compendium-like quality. The Mahabharata is no exception.”[1] The Mahabharata, helps
understanding the early caste-system, rules that governed the society, the
rulers, the social customs, norms and also the economic conditions of the
society. At the time of the Mahabharata, the society was still changing. New
ideologies were coming into play, for instance, the idea of monarchy. In spite
of the changes that were taking place within the epic itself, some elements of
the society remained relatively constant.
The economic structure
remained pretty much the same throughout the Mahabharata. The predominant
economy of the epic is a mixture of pastoralism and agriculture with an earlier
emphasis on the former gradually changing to the latter which is more apparent
in the didactic sections.[2] In the
earlier stages the society was described to be mainly clan-based, that was
governed by a chief who was the head. Gradually we observe the idea of monarchy
slowly taking over. Marcel Mauss quotes that,”Le Mahabharata est l’histoire
d’un gigantesque potlatch.” Potlatch is defined as an opulent ceremonial feast
at which possessions are given away or destroyed to display wealth or enhance
prestige.[3] This
ceremony is shown to be celebrated in the Mahabharata during the ‘Rajsuya
yagna’ which was held by Yudhishtra. This yagna was performed only by kings in
order to establish their kingship, to amalgamate factions under their
sovereignty, and to distribute wealth to many people. Kings from all over the
country were invited to attend this sacred and grand ceremony. During this
ceremony the host as well as the invitees exchanged gifts. The host of this ceremony
often gifted the other kings some gift in order to gain approval and to appeal.
Gift giving is not a one-way process since it is assumed that at some later
date the invitees will also have a potlatch, and this keeps goods in
circulation.[4]
Gift-exchange is a distinctive feature that is seen in a society that has moved
past the stages of clans and families but has not arrived at the stage of
coins, money or any sort of market economy. Gift exchanging is vital for mainly
two reasons. Firstly, it keeps the goods in circulation and secondly gifts are
a symbol of status, pride and recognition. Gift-giving revolves around the
notions of obligation, of purchase and of sacrifice.[5]
Apart from the mentioning of the
potlatch, there has been a mention of a game of dice in the Mahabharata. The
Pandavas are invited to participate in the game of dice by the Kauravas. The
eldest son of the Kauravas, Duryodhana was not permitted to perform the
‘Rajsuya yagna’ since his elder cousin brother, Yudhishtra had already done so.
Hence, a game of dice was planned. The winner of this game was predetermined
since the dice was rigged. While the valiant Kshatriyas are expected to lose
their fortunes over wars and not over gambling, the misfortunate Pandavas lose
not only their possessions, their kingdom, their wealth but also have to face
the humiliation of their wife Draupadi being disrobed in front of the whole
court. The whole court was stricken with silence not even the blind king had a
word to say because of his ‘blinded’ love for his sons. The war over power and
the legitimate heir to the throne always remained an unanswered question.
However, the Pandavas lost everything they earned but with the mention of gold,
horses, an elephant, slaves and textiles, there never has been any mention of
gold coins. This shows that the society didn’t really have a standardized
system of measurement. However, the above list has a mention of slaves. Unlike
the Greeks and the Egyptians where a lot was known about the slaves, in India
not much was known about the slaves. Nonetheless, just the mention of slaves
shows some kind of social stratification within the society. Yudhishtra put so
many slaves at stake so easily, just shows how unimportant and dispensable they
were within the social strata. The Brahmins were given great importance. Even
after Yudhishtra had nothing but himself and his family to stake he didn’t even
stake one Brahmin. This just shows how important and respected the Brahmins
were within the society.
Caste could be defined as a fairly
well marked, separate community, whose individual members are bound to each
other endogamy (and hyper gamy), and very often also by a common hereditary
profession or duty, actual or supposed.[6] Caste
defined the profession you were to undertake and the profession would in return
determine the economic conditions. The caste-system or the ‘Varna system’ was
divided into four classes hierarchically, the topmost being the Brahmins, then
the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and lastly the Shudras. These classes were given
certain duties and functions that each of them had to carry out within the
society. A hymn in the ‘Rig-Veda’ describes how the world was created by dividing
‘Purusa’ forming ‘varnas’ or classes that were based anatomically. Along with
the creation of the human beings, animals, seasons, verses, meters, and other
such elements were formed.[7] The
mouth of ‘Purusa’ became the Brahmin, his arms happened to be the Kshatriya,
the Vaisyas came from his thighs and lastly his feet became the Shudras. Brahmins
were characterized as learned people who were most familiar with scriptures,
taught and carried performed rituals or ‘yagnas’. Their work was less arduous
as compared to the other classes. This was the duty of a Brahmin in the
society. Kshatriyas were the warrior class. They were the protectors of the
society. The royals also came from this class. A Kshatriya’s duty was to
maintain the balance between the castes and to ensure the preservation of this
hierarchy within the society. They were
expected to be noble, virtuous and honorable men. These attributes were what
contributed in the making of great warriors. If these duties were abused or not
carried out, they were seen to be going against their ‘dharma’. The Vaisyas was
considered to be the business class which consisted of skilled craftsmen,
artisans, farmers and traders. They were hard-working and were expected to sell
or provide for the community. The Mahabharata mentions of metal workers,
goldsmith and architects that come under this class. The lowest class was the
Shudras. The classes above them looked down upon them. They were the working
class and consisted of mainly unskilled labor. Their duty was to serve the
upper classes. The Mahabharata throws light on some of the types of Shudras
like the ‘sarrandhari’ which included beauticians and maids, cooks, cow herders
and charioteers. Hence, this shows us
how important a role the caste-system had to play in the economic structure and
conditions of the society.
As I mentioned
earlier, the economy was a mix of pastoralism and agriculture. In the earlier parts of the epic we observe
how cows were tantamount to wealth. The more cows a family owned, the richer he
was considered to be and if the family had no cows the family was looked down
upon and probably didn’t hold too much importance within the social strata.
People who stole cows were horribly cursed. Even when Yudhishtra loses the game
of dice, he is said to have given several cows. Another example to show the
importance of cows was Bhishma’s curse. It is said that in his previous life
Bhishma was one of the eight ‘vasus’, Prabhasa. The eight vasus along with
their wives set out to visit Vashishtha. Prabhasa’s wife took real fancy in
Vashishtha’s cow, Nandini (who is referred to as a sacred, wish-fulfilling
cow). Prabhasa stole the cow with the help of the other vasu’s for his wife.
Vashishtha was so enraged that he cursed all eight of them to be born as
mortals in the world of men. The seven vasu’s begged for mercy and so
Vashishtha modified the curse for them saying that they would die instantly
just after they were born. As for Prabhasa, he was to live like a human for a longer
period of time and would lead a terrible life of misfortune. Thus Prabhasa was
reborn as Devrata( Bhishma). Even Karna
was cursed for killing a cow with helplessness. It is said that Karna was
practicing his aiming skills with his bow and arrow near Parshurama’s
ashram. Accidently, one of Karna’s
arrows kills Parshurama’s cow who was so enraged cursed him saying that one day
even he would be as helpless as the cow that he killed. This curse manifests
itself during the war when Karna’s chariot wheel gets stuck in the ground,
which further results in his death. Such grave were the consequences of killing
a cow, and such high was the regard of the cow in the society. The Mahabharata
also mentions ‘Kamadhenu’ that is said to be a divine cow that grants all your
wishes. Cows were probably given so much importance because the people relied
on the cows for milk, a basic need and for ghee that was used in sacrificial
rituals. The cow was never given as sacrifice or slaughtered for meat. Cows or
ox as gifts were regarded to be of the highest kind.
However, apart from cow,
land was considered to be another form of wealth. Land was given in the form of
gifts, ransom (Drona asks Draupada for half of his land as ransom to the Kuru
princes in exchange of his freedom), as ‘Guru-Daksina’ (the Kuru princes give
their teacher the land they got as ransom after capturing the King of Panchala,
alive). Land could also be obtained or lost in the form of certain yagnas like
the ‘Ashwamedha yagna’. This yagna could only be performed by kings in order to
gain power, supremacy and glory over the neighboring kingdoms. A horse is set
loose towards the north-east direction and if it passes the kingdoms of the
enemy, the enemy had to be conquered, thus the performer of sacrifice acquired
land and gained supremacy. Another important way of acquiring land was by
clearing of forests. This practice has been mentioned in the Mahabharata in the
later period probably because the society changed from being a pastoral to a
more agricultural one. Land was required
for cultivation of crops which became an important source of economy and
symbolized growth. The Mahabharata throws light on one such incident where
there was turmoil between the Pandavas and the Kauravas over power and both
considered themselves to be legitimate heirs of the kingdom of Hastina-Puri. To
end this havoc Krishna suggested that the kingdom of Hastina-Puri be divided
into two. Hence, Dhritarashtra allotted the forest of Khandava-prastha to the
Pandavas. The forest was home to several animals, birds, beasts, Rakshasas and
Nagas. The only way the Pandavas could make a prosperous kingdom was by burning
the forest down. Hence, the forest was completely burnt down and a beautiful
city was built. This city of ‘Indra-prastha’ had grown from ashes to being the
most prosperous city in the whole Bharata-varsha. This incident symbolizes the
change of economy from pastoralism to an agrarian one, where land was one of
the most vital elements for prosperity. This method is the most primitive form
for cultivation. However, some pasture lands are included in the forest area
such as the Dvaitavana, and the Kauravas organize a ghosayatra, a cattle-expedition to this area.[8] Hunting
was carried out then, probably because they ate the meat of the animal that
they hunted symbolizing the existence of pastoralism along with cultivation.
Such was the economy of
the society then. The changes that occurred in the society show the alteration
in the economic structure as well. Nonetheless we see the evolution of the
economy from the earliest where cattle was wealth to now where we have paper
and plastic money. There was no mention of coins earlier and now we have moved
past the gold, copper and metal coins. There was a barter system then, where
goods were exchanged and now we have trade which involves money. There was no
mention of tax earlier but gradually the concept of taxation came into play.
There was no standardized, universal measure of wealth like we have today.
Thus, we can observe not only the transformation of society gradually but also
understand the initiation of new ideologies.
Sanika Shah
FSLE-3
Works
cited:
1.
(Thapar) Economic
Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History,
Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg: 631
2.
(Thapar) Economic
Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History,
Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg: 631
4.
Economic
Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History,
Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg: 631
5.
(Thapar) Economic
Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History,
Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg: 632
6. Irfan Habib, Essays in Indian History.
Towards a Marxist Perception; p.161
7. [1] Doniger O’Flaherty 29-30
8.
(Thapar) Economic
Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History,
Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg: 639
Sites Referred to:
· ancienthistory.about.com
· asianhistory.about.com
[1] (Thapar)
Economic Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian
History, Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg: 631
[2] (Thapar)
Economic Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian
History, Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg:
631
[4] (Thapar)
Economic Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian
History, Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg:
631
[5] (Thapar)
Economic Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian
History, Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg:
632
[8] (Thapar)
Economic Condition, Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian
History, Chapter 9: Some Aspects of the Economic Data in the Mahabharata, pg:
639
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